Structuralism is an ambiguous term that refers to different schools of thought in different contexts. 2021 U2PPP U4PPP - 2000. Olmec Architecture History & Arts | What Structures Did the Olmec Build? Daw, Larry. The individual or subject depicted in these works is often decentred, without a central meaning or goal in life, and dehumanized, often losing individual characteristics and becoming merely the representative of an age or civilization, like Tiresias in The Waste Land. Sebald argues, in a conspiracy of silence. By the time of his death in 1964, Palmiro Togliatti had steered the Italian Communist Party (of which he had been the leader since 1927) away from its Stalinist past and into a future of electoral responsibility, seeking to reach, in the words of its subsequent leader, Enrico Berlinguer, an historical compromise (compromesso historico) with the new priorities of a rapidly modernising Italy. Lithuania Facts, Population & People | Where is Lithuania? In his later fiction, most notably Local Anaesthetic (1969), From the Diary of a Snail (1972), The Flounder (1977) and Headbirths, or the Germans are dying out (1982), Grass applies the techniques of Magic Realism to the issues of the present. (2021, October 10). | Jacques Lacan Philosophy & Career | Who was Jacques Lacan? This is the type of society that is depicted in the industrial novels of the late 1950s and early 1960s, notably in Paolo Volponis Memoriale (1962), Goffredo Parises The Boss (1965), and Pasolinis A Violent Life (1959), which takes as its context the harsh world of Romes Lumpenproletariat. During this time, France lost control over Indo-China, in 1954, and Algeria, in 1962; Great Britain granted independence to India, in 1947, and Nigeria, in 1963; Belgium, the Congo, in 1960; and Portugal, Goa, in 1961. It is concerned with creating explicit imagery with sharp imagery with sharp language. Leni Riefenstahl Biography, Movies & Propaganda| Who was Leni Riefenstahl? [12] Barthes, The Structuralist Activity [1963], in Critical Essays, (Evanston: Northweston University Press, 1972), pp. Guatemala History, Culture & People | Where is Guatemala Located? Postmodernism was introduced to Taiwan, Hong Kong, and China around the mid-1980s, whereas postmodern literature and discourse emerged primarily in the 1990s. These groups acted according to a new definition of the political, one that remained inherently suspicious of all master narratives and -isms, whether from the Right or the Left. Althea Gibson Biography, Facts & Titles | Who was Althea Gibson? 141-149. Neuropsychology Role, Methods & Examples | What is Neuropsychology? Handkes most famous play, Offending the Audience (1966), for example, contains neither dramatic action nor dramatis personae, but structures its minimalist progress around a verbal confrontation between the actors on the stage and the audience, who are made the subject of a process of accelerating vilification. Postmodernism has often been vehemently criticized. A tradition of fabulation and fantasy had long existed in European literature, in the Gothic fiction of the late 18th and 19th century, which ran from Horace Walpoles The Castle of Otranto (1764) and Mary Shelleys Frankenstein (1818), through to Bram Stokers Dracula (1897) and the science fiction of H.G. [30] Bond, If we were here, in The Worlds with The Activist Papers (London: Methuen, 1980), p. 142. Absurdity here is not simply an existential fact, an irrevocable part of the human condition or the consequence of the loss of religious transcendence; it is intimately connected to the artificial ways that personal identity is made and unmade in the social process: it is part of the theatricality of self. At the same time, modern literature has not given more great talents, than the literature of the 19th century. Philosophically speaking, Jurgen Habermas is one of the most comprehensive critics of postmodernism. The Postmodernist disbelief in coherence and unity points to another basic distinction between Modernism and Postmodernism. [5], To a large extent, this rediscovery of the parochial was a consequence of the loss of world-power status that many European countries suffered in the period between 1945 and 1970. Postmodernism in art and literature includes many aspects that define a novel or piece of writing to be postmodern. Space in Art: Overview & Examples | The Space Element of Art. The notion of locating precise meanings and reasons behind any event became seen as impossible. These themes and techniques are often used together. The revolutionary politics of those days had now gone: transition not revolution, pragmatism not idealism, were the policies promoted by early post-war governments throughout Europe. The plays of Beckett, Ionesco, and Adamov did indeed take up the aesthetic of the nouveau roman, retaining its critical impetus, and transposing it to a realm where its implications for larger metaphysical questions would become apparent. In Sweden, major literature came from the poets Gunnar Ekelf (Ferry Song, 1941 and Guide to the Underworld, 1967) and Erik Lindegren (The Man without a Way, 1942 and Winter Sacrifice, 1954), and from Stig Dagerman (the stories, Games of the Night, 1947, and the novel, A Burnt Child, 1948). (Bertens, Bertens and Natoli 35-38) Embodying his own postmodernist feeling, Barth creates a book about the presents new and historical reality of the US. Cuba Facts, History & People | Where is Cuba Located? [40], A similar perspective is evident in poets writing in the Eastern Bloc countries. | Domino Effect Overview & Examples | What is the Domino Effect? Demon King Ravana Mythology | Who is Ravana in Hinduism? Themes in the literary traditions of contemporary Africa are worked out frequently within the strictures laid down by the imported religions Christianity and Islam and within the struggle between traditional and modern, between rural and newly urban, between genders, and between generations. The philosophy of postmodernism in literature emerged in the 20th century. Discussing the works of writers who were created in the period of postmodernism, it can be stated that all of them strongly influenced the movement. It was a perception which encouraged many playwrights into a form of constructive sabotage of the system. Chiron Origin & Greek Mythology | Who was Chiron? Just as we have lost touch with the reality of our life, we have also moved away from the reality of the goods we consume. Mahoney, Blair. Philippe Pinel Biography & Psychiatry | Who was Philippe Pinel? His novels, The Joke (1967), Life is Everywhere (1969), and The Book of Laughter and Forgetting (1978), deal with the tensions between private morality and public definitions of the truth in political states that are closed to flexibility and criticism. [13] Kundera, Dialogue on the art of the novel [1983], in The Art of the Novel (London: Faber and Faber, 1988), p. 32; Pinter, Plays, 3 vols (London: Eyre Methuen, 1976), vol. October 10, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/post-modernism-in-literature/. Creativity in Psychology: Overview, Theories & Examples | What is Creativity? Eine Rehabilitation kann Betroffenen helfen. Postmodernism is an intellectual stance or mode of discourse defined by an attitude of skepticism toward what it considers as the grand narratives and ideologies of modernism, as well as opposition to epistemic certainty and the stability of meaning. Claims to objective fact are dismissed as naive realism. Postmodernism is characterized by self-referentiality, epistemological relativism, moral In spite of the rather stretched, cynical arguments of Postmodernism, the theory has exerted a fundamental influence on late 20th century thought. Postmodernism absolutely consciously revised the entire literary heritage. To the critique of metaphysical presence undertaken by Derrida and others, the philosopher, Michel Foucault, added an important historicising perspective, mapping out in his The Archaeology of Knowledge (1969), Discipline and Punish (1975) and The History of Sexuality (3 volumes, 1976-1984), both the conceptual and the institutional terrain upon which knowledge and power have covertly been exercised. The Modern World. Modernism projects the fragmentation and decentredness of contemporary world as tragic. The Modern World. Modernist literature could be characterized by its depth, but postmodern writers aimed at depicting the truth of real-life without trying to make it better or to hide what could arouse resentment in readers. Crucifixion History & Examples | What is Crucifixion? 6. writers eschew, often playfully, the possibility of meaning, and the postmodern novel is often a parody of this. James Joyce Biography, Writing Style & Books | Who was James Joyce? Elsewhere in Eastern Europe, the same will to self-expression and the same creative circumnavigation of political despotism gave rise to an impressive literature of protest and inner emigration. Larkin put their predicament succinctly in his poem Wants (1955): despite the artful tensions of the calendar/ The life insurance, the tabled fertility rites, / The costly aversion of the eyes from death -/ Beneath it all, desire of oblivion runs. Hong Kong Facts & Population | Where is Hong Kong? The styles and ideologies of postmodern literature have had a tremendous influence on contemporary literature, visual art, film, science, history and journalism. In the early 20th century, writers such as Ezra Pound, whose desire to write unique, gave literary modernism its start. All would have accepted as self-evident the words of Gnter Grass who wrote, thirty years after a disbelieving world first learnt of the horror of the camps, that for the Germans of the post-war period no amount of economic prosperity could conceal the moral vacuum engendered by their incomparable guilt. Finally, all versions of Postmodernism rely on the method of Deconstruction to analyze socio-cultural situations. As he argued in an essay of 1977, words must be made to detach themselves, as words of communion, of meaning, from the web of concepts; this alone permits the advent of being in its own absoluteness. They took as their starting point a repudiation of the nineteenth century Realist novel, particularly as it was written by Balzac in his The Human Comedy. This goal is also evident in Handkes subsequent plays, such as Kaspar (1968) and The Ride across Lake Constance (1971), which likewise focus upon the complex relationship between knowledge and power, demonstrating how definitions of selfhood come through the understanding and manipulation of language. In his World Postmodern Fiction: A Guide (London: Longmans, 1993), Christopher Nash offers a survey of some of the major literary texts, as does Stephen Baker, The Literature of Postmodernity (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2000) and, with a greater focus on the contemporary, the essays included in Thomas Vaessens and Yra van Dijk (eds), Reconsidering the Postmodern: European Literature beyond Relativism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011) and Andrew Hammond, The Novel and Europe: Imagining the Continent in Post-1945 Fiction (Palgrave, 2016). Ballard (The Atrocity Exhibition, 1970, Crash, 1973, and Myths of the Near Future, 1982), and the Polish writer, Stanislaw Lem (Solaris, 1961, The Cyberiad, 1965, and Imaginary Magnitude, 1973). llatsgok (2007) After Beckett. Musicology: Study of Music History & Scope | What is Musicology? Between 2002 and 2004, the Socetas staged the Endogonidic Tragedy, the various episodes of which were addressed to the communities of the different European cities in which they were staged, including Berlin, Brussels, Paris, Rome, London, Strasbourg, where each episode was set. Literature is strewn with the wreckage of those who have minded beyond reason the opinion of others. Virginia Woolf, A Room of One's Own. Here, signifiers always point to signifieds. The novel is a succinct parable on the precarious and superficial nature of civilised morality which, as the Fascist experience in Europe showed, is often unable to resist the call of the wild, irresistibly drawn to a world where no moral voice is heard, no words, and no movements but the tearing of teeth and claws. Projection in Psychology Overview & Examples | What is Projection? This would mean, for instance, that the Gulf war that we know from newspapers and television reports has no connection whatsoever to what can be called the real Iraq war. Pillars in Architecture: Overview & Function | What is a Pillar? Grass opposition to such threats is unambiguously resolute. So whenever you talk about postmodernism, make sure you are not completely against this. In the Basque and Galician regions, novelists such as Manuel Rivas (The Carpenters Pencil, 1988), Suso de Toro (Tick-Tock, 1993) and Bernardo Atxaga Obabakoak (1988), The Lone Man (1996) and The Fighter (2012), have produced works of post-modern fabulation in their native languages. As Robbe-Grillet, the leading theoretician of the movement, explained in his treatise, For a New Novel (1963), such assumptions had no place in the Postmodern period: they were part of the fixed significations, the ready-made meanings which afforded man the old divine order, and subsequently the rationalist order of the nineteenth century, and as such had to be rejected. Timothy Leary Biography & LSD | Who was Timothy Leary? For Hassan, Postmodernist literature centred on the two accents of silence: the negative echo of language, auto-destructive, demonic, nihilist [and] its positive stillness, self-transcendent, sacramental, plenary (Hassan, p. 248). 1996. What these critics were trying to identify was not only an original type of literature but an entirely new attitude to literary culture, one that rejected, as Fiedler explained in his 1965 essay The New Mutants (in Fiedler, 1971, vol. Thomas Bernhard has added to his probing novels of disenchantment, vitriolic plays that are no less disturbing and controversial, such as Heroes Square (1988), in which he castigates his fellow Austrians for what he sees as their residual anti-Semitism. | Thus, it is possible to draw a conclusion that postmodernism as the philosophical and literary system actively functioning at present, continues to remain in the center of attention of domestic and foreign authors and critics, causing brisk discussions and receiving mixed opinions. Web. In this research post-modernism as a literary movement will be presented as an analysis of the historical background, writing style, and remarkable authors. Castigated as an eccentric, her prophesies deprecated and neglected, Cassandra fails to steer the community of which she is a part away from military catastrophe. 600 likes. History of Mental Health | Awareness, Timeline & Facts. Richard Pevear (New York: Random House, 1985), p. 145. While in post- modernism a form of literature which is marked, both stylistically and ideologically. He is the founder of the Odin Theatre, which promotes the practice of theatre as barter, as an interactive process with the local community, and the International School of Theatre Anthropology, which promotes a Third Theatre, exploring marginality, autodidacticism, the existential and ethical dimension of the craft, within a diversity of multicultural themes and techniques on a collaborative stage as in Mythos (1998), Andersens Dream (2005) and The Chronic Life (2012). Rseau These are some of the most important characteristics of postmodern literature 1. Modernism is the literary movement that is considered an overturn of traditional writing waysmodernists engaged in writing with technological advances and societal changes. Chinese Calligraphy Overview & Facts | Calligraphy in Chinese Art. It does not say that some parts of the society illustrate Order, and that other parts illustrate Disorder. 245 lessons, {{courseNav.course.topics.length}} chapters | Modernism means or definition is that leaving to old tradition in art, literature while postmodernism means a movement in which the subject [27] Vaclav Havel, Second Wind [1977], in Open Letters, p. 9. The simulated image of Gulf war has become so much more popular and real than the real war, that Baudrillard argues that the Gulf War did not take place. Republic of Moldova: History, People & Language | Where is Moldova? They are symbols for a people obsessed with correspondences. If you keep using the site, you accept our. In Poland, Ewa Lipska focuses on the need to demystify language on a political and personal level. For the writer, in particular, it is less and less necessary for him to invent the fictional content of his novel. This is a poetry which speaks eloquently whilst remaining fully aware of the impossibility of full speech. The postmodern philosophical perspective is pretty cynical and takes nothing that is presented at face value or as being legitimate. Its province was not high-moral seriousness but deflationary critique, not ideological rigour but playful irony, not spiritual abstinence but consumption and jouissance, values which energised the present as they held open avenues to the future. The latter had already anticipated Absurdist themes in his novels, Our Lady of the Flowers (1943) and Miracle of the Rose (1946), which fuse erotic fantasy and violence in their explorations of the homosexual and transsexual world of the Parisian demimonde. Joseph Heller - Joseph Heller's most famous work. Don DE Lillos White Noise is famous for its critique of consumer culture. When you finish writing, reflect: what aspects of postmodernism were easy to emulate? Modernism was an earlier aesthetic movement which was in vogue in the early decades of the twentieth century. Despite differences of approach and methodology, studies of Postmodernism seek to uncover a common aesthetic, one that is suspicious of unreflective representationalism, master narratives and of all discourses that seek to foreclose the free play of subjectivity and the unpredictable trajectories of desire. Not poetic transport, but the refusal of flight, not intoxication, but sobriety, not the loss of critical acumen but its sharpening through ideological and linguistic vigilance is the goal of this verse. Fredric Jameson has related Modernism and Postmodernism to the second and third phases of capitalism. You are free to use it to write your own assignment, however you must reference it properly. This was the case with the most important French poet of this period, Yves Bonnefoy. In The Lesson (1951), an otherwise innocuous tutorial between a professor and his student becomes the context for a murder; whilst in The Bald Prima-Donna (1950), social roles are reduced to linguistic clichs. For a brief moment, London, which up to David Bellos (London: Collins Harvil, 1987), p. xvii; and Kristeva, Word, Dialogue and Novel [1966], in Desire and Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art (New York: Columbia U.P, 1980), p. 66. This salvation and social release were imposed on the public in a rather aggressive way. Maypole Overview, Dance & History | What is a Maypole? The movement has occurred, having in its basis the philosophy of the end of human history, the philosophy of the natural person who is giving in to the dictatorship of psycho-physiological requirements. [34] Salman Rushdie and Gnter Grass, Fictions are lies that tell the truth, The Listener, 27 June 1985, 14-15; Grass, Writers and the Trade Unions, in On Writing and Politics, p. 116; Grass, Headbirths, or the Germans are dying out (London; Secker and Warburg, 1982), p. 135. Consequently, postmodern philosophers emphasize how both subjects and objects are inescapably dependent on each other, and truth is always conditioned and partial. Many critics and scholars find it best to define postmodern literature against the popular literary style that came before it: modernism. The Italian poets, Alfredo Giuliani and Nanni Balestrini (members of the 1960 novissimi group) and Lamberto Pignotti (founding member of Gruppo 63) foregrounded the political implications of this textual interrogation. 16-17. [31] Barthes, Objective Literature [1954], in Critical Essays, p. 23; Rushdie, Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism, 1981-1991 (London: Granta Press, 1991), p. 301; Tournier, The Wind Spirit: An Autobiography [1977] (Boston: Beacon Books, 1988), p. 164 and 129; and Calvino, The Written and the Unwritten Word, New York Review of Books, 12 May 1983, 38-39. Ionesco seeks here to demystify all ideologies that seek to obliterate the distinction between individual discernment and collective belonging. German writers, in particular, from Heinrich Bll and Paul Celan to Rolf Hochhuth and the Swiss writer, Max Frisch, entered upon a painful confrontation with their past (a process called in German Vergangenheitsbewltigung), seeking to account for the involvement (or at least the complicity) of an entire nation in the attempted extermination of the Jews. Postmodern literature reached its peak in the 60s and 70s with the publication of Catch-22 by Joseph Heller, Lost in the Funhouse and Sot-Weed Factor by John Barth, Gravitys Rainbow, V., and Crying of Lot 49 by Thomas Pynchon, factions like Armies in the Night and In Cold Blood by Norman Mailer and Truman Capote, postmodern science fiction novels like Neoromancer by William Gibson, Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut and many others. In 1965 after Giles Goat-Boy, or, The Revised New Syllabus had been published, John Barth was considered as one of the top American writers. The influence of oral traditions on modern writers. https://studycorgi.com/post-modernism-in-literature/. There were, certainly, exceptions to this general trend. StudyCorgi. Postmodernism in literature is a form of literature which is marked, both stylistically and ideologically, by a reliance on such literary conventions as fragmentation, paradox, unreliable narrators, often unrealistic and downright impossible plots, games, parody, paranoia, dark humor and authorial self-reference.. Postmodern authors tend to reject outright meanings in Joe DiMaggio Career, Life & Death | Who was Joe DiMaggio? Modernism refers to a global movement in society and culture that from the early decades of the twentieth century sought a new alignment with the experience and values of modern industrial life. Some of his famous works include, Samuel Barclay Beckett - Beckett authored, David Foster Wallace - Wallace is likely best known for his voluminous novel. Immaculate Conception Overview & Feast | What is the Immaculate Conception? [42], In his poetry, the Hungarian, Lszl Nagy (The Bride of the Sun, 1956, and Hymn for Anytime, 1965), finds a perspective upon the troubles of his contemporary Hungary by identifying himself with those rituals and customs that inform the popular mind, and which help make sense of life in periods of confusing historical change. Gomringer described concrete poetry as a reality in itself, not a poem about something or other, a definition expanded by Bense who typified it as a style of material poetry that was not subject to the conventional rules of grammar and syntax but was ruled by unique visually and structurally oriented models. [42] Hughes, Crow Hears Fate Knock on the Door, in, Crow: From the Life an Songs of the Crow (London: Faber and Faber, 1972), p. 23. The Aging Confessor and the Young Villain: Shadowy Encounters of a Mirrored Self in Julian Barness The Sense of an Ending. If modernism was an aesthetic movement how come postmodernism becomes bad for society? Those who have been forced to live through these wasting realities have produced some of the most compelling literature of the period. Bertens, Johannes Willem, Hans Bertens, and Joseph P. Natoli. Tabula Rasa Overview & Blank Slate | What is Tabula Rasa? The Lure of the Threshold, in particular, charts this struggle to make language transparent with the radiance of the object-world, containing poems which are self-contained verbal icons, dislocated from syntax and linearity. Behavior Management Overview & Theories | What is Behavioral Management? Ma Rainey, Blues Singer: Career & Life | Who was Ma Rainey? Postmodernism broadly refers to a socio-cultural and literary theory, and a shift in perspective that has manifested in a variety of disciplines including the social sciences, art, architecture, literature, fashion, communications, and technology. Literary modernism, or modernist literature, has its origins in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, mainly in Europe and North America, and is characterized by a self Even in Eastern Europe, where Stalins death in 1953 had opened up possibilities for new literary forms, Absurd theatre flourished. Like their German counter-parts, writers such as Cesare Pavese, Vasco Pratolini, Leonardo Sciascia, Franco Fortini, Paolo Volponi and Elio Vittorini moved towards a neo-realist style in their writing. [1], The legacy of the Second World War produced amongst many writers of this period a radical mistrust of political ideologies, irrespective of whether they were liberal, socialist or nationalist in nature, and a scepticism regarding notions such as civilisation and progress. 54 and 53; and Popa, Collected Poems, 1943-1976, trans. In Rhinoceros (1959), Ionesco described a society that had, through the gathering momentum of collective opinion, decided to turn itself into a community of rhinoceros. 1 educator answer. Her fate, Wolf argues, must not be shared by the women of today, many of whom likewise find themselves witnesses of ecological ruin and impending nuclear disaster. Jack Bevan (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965), p. 102. That the only humour appropriate in an age of recurrent wars and political repression is dark humour is borne out by the work of Otto Orban (The Blood Of The Walsungs, 1993). The Holocaust has left a dark legacy for the European mind, one that is cloaked, as W.G. University of Illinois Press, 1994. J.H. Postmodern literary writers have also been greatly influenced by various movements and ideas taken from postmodern philosophy. In response to modernist Postmodernity (post-modernity or the postmodern condition) is the economic or cultural state or condition of society which is said to exist after modernity. Dome Overview, History & Types | What is a Dome in Architecture? The target of the play is the ethos of consensus, whether that emanates from the common-sense convictions of normal life or the explicitly totalitarian ones of Fascism and Communism. Sanskrit Language Origin, Writing & Alphabet | What is Sanskrit? They affected the essence of literature, its primary goals, and some components which used to characterize the preceding literary tendencies. Postmodernism can be considered, as a peculiar level of knowledge in the most developed societies. Nikos Stangos (Penguin; Harmondsworth, 1974), p. 168. Postmodernism in the literature started to take a shape in the sixties and the seventies of the 20th century and, as well as modernism, promised salvation. . Create a free website or blog at WordPress.com. Constructivism invariably leads to relativism. The Socetas has developed its own polylingual idiom, lingua generalissima, a cryptic language that first made its appearance in Kaputt Nekropolis (1984). [21] Fowles, The French Lieutenants Woman (London: Panther, 1977), p. 86; Perec, Life, A Users Manual, trans. Tonga History, Culture & People | Where is Tonga Located? What Moment? News & Announcements 2022 K-12 SOL Institutes in English Language Arts - REGISTRATION OPEN! The German-Romanian writer, Herta Mller (Nadirs, 1984, The Land of Green Plums, 1994), has written, in tones of controlled pathos, about what it means to live in a dictatorship, the psychological impact on the self-worth of the individual, and the fear and the bad faith of those who participate in the system of rule, themes explored in a different context by the Albanian writer, Ismail Kadare (The Palace of Dreams, 1981, The Pyramid, 1992), who focuses both on the material mechanisms of control in a totalitarian state (secret police, media manipulation) and on its manipulation of myth and symbol to legitimise its actions. When considering Borges as another post-modern writer, it should be mentioned that he, in fact, did not refer to the post-modern era. Jorge Luis Borges born in Buenos Aires, Argentina on August 24, 1899, is an Argentinean prose writer, poet and a publicist. Chambers 20th Century Dictionary (4.50 / Plus, get practice tests, quizzes, and personalized coaching to help you Disintegration. You could also find articles on the key theorists by just browsing through http://www.literariness.org. Modernism works through metanarratives or grand narratives, while Postmodernism questions and deconstructs metanarratives. The success of that nation and of others, such as Italy, seemed to suggest that capitalist society was, after all, able to solve the kinds of political problems that had almost destroyed it in the inter-war period. Bodhisattva History & Role | What is a Bodhisattva? Kurt Vonnegut Books & Quotes | Who is Kurt Vonnegut? Philanthropist Overview & Examples | What is Philanthropy? Wittig espouses what she calls a materialist lesbianism which has at its motivating energy the desire to destroy politically, philosophically, and symbolically the categories of men and women . [34], Grass later work seeks to demonstrate that individuals are irrevocably embroiled in the public sphere of politics even when they believe themselves defined through the purely personal realm. He points out the foolishness of such belief systems by undermining the reasoning behind them; he accomplishes this through Sister Rochelles anecdotes, Zoyds wedding memories, and his own invention of the Thanatos. 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